The story of the Hindu Caste System has less to do with its Hinduness and more to do with social evolution, power, racism, economics, opportunism, healing, and reconstruction. In this first part of a two-part series, we will look at the scriptures and cultural influences that made society vulnerable to the caste system later imposed by the British. In Part II, we will look at the motivations for introducing the Systema De Castas (The Caste System) in India and the healing and reconstruction underway in the present day.
Introduction
Most casual observers take the association between caste and Hinduism for granted. Growing up in India, I came across undertones of casteism among the older generation. For example, the odd grandmother or uncle would make the occasional statement about their opposition to “marriage outside our community (Jāti)” It seemed milder than their prejudice against other things in the same category, such as inter-religious marriage or marriage with foreigners. My mother would have a separate cup and plate for the housemaid who visited for an hour every day. However, in casual conversation, the housemaid often made it clear that she too was a ‘Maratha,’ and thus higher in status than some other presumably lower being.
I was rarely asked about my caste, and I never asked my friends about theirs. Somehow I knew that would be rude. I don’t recall being taught about caste in school, or maybe I didn’t pay enough attention. Later in undergraduate college, I was aware of but not directly affected by the ubiquitous affirmative action programs in educational institutions for the so-called ‘scheduled castes/scheduled tribes.’ During this time, I was made aware of the continued guilt of the ‘Sawarnas,’ translated by the English speakers as ‘Higher Castes.’ I entered the twenty-first century with an incongruous experience of the so-called “caste system,” a large vocabulary and negligible wisdom.
Fast forward to 2021/2022, a case in California of an engineer at Cisco alleging caste discrimination gained prominence. The “Hindu Caste System” was back in the spotlight, and there was Hinduphobic talk in the workplace. Some claimed that caste was built into the scriptures of Hinduism and that caste thinking was the same as racist thinking. By implication, a large proportion of Hindus were supposedly racists and had been racists for millennia. Naturally, I expected to find some racist notions in the Vedanta and the Bhagavad Gita, which I had incidentally started studying around the same time. I read through the texts wearily, guessing that ‘caste’ was not a Sanskrit word, and there might be racist ideas hiding in the odd verse. Surprisingly, I did not find anything that stood out as racist. Confused, I decided it was time to go back to school and pay attention. What was Caste? Why was it associated with Hinduism? Why was it so difficult to find its references in the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita, and other Hindu religious texts?
As we explore this topic, I hope the timeline below will help explain the roadmap.
Note: The age of the Vedas, Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita is based on the dating of the Saraswati River (Sankaran) and the archaeoastronomical derivations (Oak). The other dates are based on chronicled historical records (see citations at the end).
Varnas in Sanatan Dharma/Hinduism Texts
First, let me clarify that there are at least 16 primary schools of Hindu philosophy (not counting Buddhism and Jainism). To avoid disagreement, I have picked from the generally accepted texts, like the Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Dharmashastras, in roughly chronological order.
Introducing Varṇas
The Sanskrit word varṇa is derived from the root vṛ, meaning “to cover, envelop, count, classify, consider, describe or choose.” In simple terms, Varṇa is the external or material property or behavior (Guna) of a person and is distinguished from the inner consciousness of Ātman.
The concept of the four Varṇas can be thought of as a method of mapping personality types (gunas) to professions – those with the aptitude to be intellectuals and teachers are Brahmins; the folks who can be politicians and soldiers are Kshatriyas. The Vaishyas are entrepreneurial types, and the Shudras are those who enjoy hard work, like farmers and construction workers. We look at this idea in further detail when reviewing what the Bhagavad Gita says on the topic.
The four varṇas are neither caste nor class; they have no bearing on economic status; they are not set by birth or designation. In the Vedic gurukul education system, the teachers would teach according to capability. Those who could be the primary sources of information and be willing to impart the knowledge to others would grow up to be Brahmins. Those who perfected war-craft/state-craft would become Kshatriyas. Those who learned economics and were entrepreneurial farmers or business people would be part of the Vaishya Union. Those who were artisans, semi-skilled or unskilled labor would be in the Shudra guild.
In Vedic times, there was no such thing as a birth-based or race-based Varna. It was about your actions, behavior, and achievements. A perfect illustration of this concept can be found in the story of Vyasa, the most significant Hindu sage of all time. Vyasa was born to a fisherman’s family out of wedlock and would be classified as a Shudra if we were to go by birth alone. He was not only the author of the Mahabharata, but he was also the compiler of the Vedas and the grandfather of the Pandava and Kaurava princes. There are many references to this line of kings being Kshatriyas, but there are zero references to them as Shudras.
Varṇas in the Vedas
The four Vedas are the oldest known literature. The first of the four is the Rigveda, followed by the Atharvaveda, Samaveda, and the Yajurveda. They all mention the four varṇas but do not speak of birth-based criteria or controlling social relationships. Note that, although some people consider the Upanishads to be part of the Vedas, we will cover them separately.
The Rigveda (10,000 BC) is the first and oldest of the four Vedas. The Purusha Suktam (Rigveda 10.90.1 – 14) mentions the four varṇas as parts of the body of Purusha (supreme consciousness) in a highly stylized and symbolic creation myth that includes the creation of the earth, sky, sun, and moon.
The Sanskrit word varṇa is derived from the root vṛ, meaning “to cover, envelop, count, classify, consider, describe or choose.” In simple terms, Varṇa is the external or material property or behavior (Guna) of a person and is distinguished from the inner consciousness of Ātman.
सहस्रशीर्षा पुरुषः सहस्राक्षः सहस्रपात् । स भूमिं विश्वतो वृत्वात्यतिष्ठद्दशाङ्गुलम् ॥
Purusha (supreme consciousness) contains the equivalent of an infinite number of minds, infinite perception, infinite speed, and exceeds space by ten dimensions.
पुरुष एवेदं सर्वं यद्भूतं यच्च भव्यम् । उतामृतत्वस्येशानो यदन्नेनातिरोहति ॥
Purusha (supreme consciousness) is all that was, all that is, and all that will be. Purusha is lord of the immortal domain.
एतावानस्य महिमातो ज्यायाँश्च पूरुषः । पादोऽस्य विश्वा भूतानि त्रिपादस्यामृतं दिवि ॥
Such is the greatness of Purusha that one-fourth of his dimensionality is in the material world, and the other three-fourths are immortal in higher dimensions.
त्रिपादूर्ध्व उदैत्पुरुषः पादोऽस्येहाभवत्पुनः । ततो विष्वङ्व्यक्रामत्साशनानशने अभि ॥
Three-fourths of Purusha is in higher dimensions, and the remaining fourth is cycled repeatedly as animate and inanimate matter.
तस्माद्विराळजायत विराजो अधि पूरुषः । स जातो अत्यरिच्यत पश्चाद्भूमिमथो पुरः ॥
That one-fourth created the Universe and then manifested the earth and life forms.
ब्राह्मणोऽस्य मुखमासीद्बाहू राजन्यः कृतः । ऊरू तदस्य यद्वैश्यः पद्भ्यां शूद्रो अजायत ॥
चन्द्रमा मनसो जातश्चक्षोः सूर्यो अजायत । मुखादिन्द्रश्चाग्निश्च प्राणाद्वायुरजायत ॥
नाभ्या आसीदन्तरिक्षं शीर्ष्णो द्यौः समवर्तत । पद्भ्यां भूमिर्दिशः श्रोत्रात्तथा लोकाँ अकल्पयन् ॥
The Brāhmaṇa emerged from the head, from his arms the Rājanya (Kshatriya), from the thighs the Vaiśya; from the feet came the Śūdra. The moon was born in his mind. The sun from his eye; Indra and Agni were from his mouth, Vāyu from his breath. From his navel came the firmament, from his head the sky, the earth from his feet, the quarters of space from his ear, so they constituted the world.
Although the verse says that ‘Shudras came from the feet of Purusha,’ there is no indication that feet are inferior to hands, torsos, heads, or any other parts of the fictional ‘body’ of Purusha. The Earth, too, is said to come from the feet. The association of Shudra with Earth makes sense, given that ‘shudra’ was a synonym for ‘farmer’.
The other Vedas have similar references. None of them mention untouchability. Some rituals mentioned in the Vedas ask the King to eat with representatives of the four Varṇas from the same vessel.
Varṇas in the Bhagavad Gita (5000 BC)
The Bhagavad Gita is a philosophical work set within the epic poem The Mahabharata. In the eighteen chapters of the Gita, Sri Krishna answers Prince Arjun’s questions about the nature of Life and the Universe.
In chapter 18, verses 41-44, Sri Krishna explains the spiritual significance of the four varṇas.
ब्राह्मणक्षत्रियविशां शूद्राणां च परन्तप |
कर्माणि प्रविभक्तानि स्वभावप्रभवैर्गुणै: || 41||
brāhmaṇa-kṣhatriya-viśhāṁ śhūdrāṇāṁ cha parantapa
karmāṇi pravibhaktāni svabhāva-prabhavair guṇaiḥ
According to their inherent abilities and properties, all humans are divided into four occupational categories (guna). The four categories are brahmins ‘professors’, Kshatriyas ‘protectors,’ vaishyas ‘producers,’ and shudras ‘service providers.’
शमो दमस्तप: शौचं क्षान्तिरार्जवमेव च |
ज्ञानं विज्ञानमास्तिक्यं ब्रह्मकर्म स्वभावजम् || 42||
śhamo damas tapaḥ śhauchaṁ kṣhāntir ārjavam eva cha
jñānaṁ vijñānam āstikyaṁ brahma-karma svabhāva-jam
One’s dharma (duty) is to work as a Brahmin if endowed with the following qualities: equilibrium, sensory restraint, yogic practice, cleanliness, peacefulness, unbiased truth-telling, theoretical knowledge, realized knowledge, and direct experience of Brahman (supreme consciousness).
शौर्यं तेजो धृतिर्दाक्ष्यं युद्धे चाप्यपलायनम् |
दानमीश्वरभावश्च क्षात्रं कर्म स्वभावजम् || 43||
śhauryaṁ tejo dhṛitir dākṣhyaṁ yuddhe chāpy apalāyanam
dānam īśhvara-bhāvaśh cha kṣhātraṁ karma svabhāva-jam
One’s duty is the work as a Kshatriya if endowed with the following qualities: courage, passion, determination, mastery of martial arts, fearlessness, generosity, and leadership qualities.
कृषिगौरक्ष्यवाणिज्यं वैश्यकर्म स्वभावजम् |
परिचर्यात्मकं कर्म शूद्रस्यापि स्वभावजम् || 44||
kṛiṣhi-gau-rakṣhya-vāṇijyaṁ vaiśhya-karma svabhāva-jam
paricharyātmakaṁ karma śhūdrasyāpi svabhāva-jam
One’s duty is to work as a vaishya if endowed with skills in making and selling agricultural products, skills in animal husbandry, and entrepreneurial spirit. One’s duty is to work as a shudra if one has trustworthiness, dedication to tasks, and skill or artistic ability.
स्वे स्वे कर्मण्यभिरत: संसिद्धिं लभते नर: |
स्वकर्मनिरत: सिद्धिं यथा विन्दति तच्छृणु || 45||
sve sve karmaṇy abhirataḥ sansiddhiṁ labhate naraḥ
sva-karma-nirataḥ siddhiṁ yathā vindati tach chhṛiṇu
One who takes pleasure in working according to their inherent nature attains perfection. Now hear how one achieves that perfection in life.
Varṇas in the Vedanta/ Upanishads (~2000 BC)
The Upanishads are the metaphysical portion of the four Vedas concerned with ‘higher knowledge’ and Enlightenment. Vedanta, the alternative name for the Upanishads, literally means ‘final words.’
The Upanishads state that we are all part of the Supreme Consciousness. Being a philosophical text, they do not go into issues of social science or material aspects of life. They do not mention Varṇas at all.
On the contrary, the Upanishads emphasize the core message of Hinduism.
In Mundaka Upanishad 1.1.5:
तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति ।
अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ ५ ॥
Of these lower is (the knowledge of) the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda, the code of rituals, grammar, and astrology. The higher (knowledge) is that by which the immortal (Supreme Consciousness) is known.
The Vajra-sūcika Upanishad of the Samaveda is a set of 11 verses that provide a stepwise characterization of the Brahmin. It starts by asking a question in Verse 1 – Who is a Brahmin? The Upanishad explores all possible ways to characterize a Brahmin, based on birth, previous incarnations, characteristics of the physical body, wisdom, actions, and knowledge of rituals
In this connection, there is a point worthy of investigation. Who is, verily, a Brahmin? Is he the individual self? Is he the body? Is he of the class based on birth? Is he the [possessor of] knowledge? Is he the [performer of] deeds (previous, present, or prospective)? Is he the performer of the rites?
(Verse 2)
After eliminating all these characteristics in verses 2 through 10, the Upanishad concludes thusly:
He who having attained self-realization becomes rid of the faults of desire, attachment, etc., and is endowed with the six virtues. 3 He who has overcome emotion, spite, greed, expectation, desire, delusion, etc., with the mind unaffected by pride, egoism, and the like; he alone, who is possessed of these qualities is called a Brahmin.
(Verse 11)
Varṇas in the Dharmasastras (600 BC - 300 CE)
The Dharmasastra texts are a group of about 18 texts on law and conduct – constitutions so to speak. Dharmashastras are best understood as books of law – like the United States Constitution or the Constitution of the Republic of India. The texts contain different points of view by different authors hailing from different parts of the subcontinent over time, and each text has many versions. All of these texts mention the four varṇas.
These are not religious mandates. Unlike the Sharia law of the Islamic faith, for instance, these texts are not considered to be binding, are limited to time and place, and are subject to change. For instance in Tamil Nadu, the book of Tirukkural written by Thiruvalluvar was the law and Manusmriti was not well known.
One must admit that it is easy to imagine how the Varṇas might be bastardized into hereditary identities. In this case, the son of a Kshatriya ruler would continue to rule after his death, the daughter of a Brahmin would learn the ways of the Brahmin, or the son of a carpenter would learn woodworking. It is also natural to expect that the Dharmashastras, being practical documents that deal with the currency of power, politics, and control, will deviate from Vedic teachings. This is exactly what we observe when we dwell on the texts.
The original Dharmashastra, the Gotama Dharmasutra, starts deviating just a bit. For example, verse 4.1 adds a requirement that marriages be within the same Varna, but verse 4.10 legitimizes the Gandharva Marriage (Love Marriage) between any man and a willing maiden.
A householder shall take a wife (of) equal (varna), who has not belonged to another man and is younger (than himself) – 4.1
The spontaneous union with a willing (maiden is called) a Gândharva wedding – 4.10
Similarly, in 4.22 and 4.23, it gives a way out of a fixed system.
In the seventh (generation) men obtain a change of varna, either being raised to a higher one or being degraded to a lower one. The venerable teacher declares (that this happens) in the fifth (generation).
The Manusmriti (law of Manu) is one of the last Dharmasastras, written in about 300CE. In this constitution, Manu gives a detailed set of laws to govern marriage, inheritance, social functions, ethics, business, and statecraft. He also gives expected duties of the members of the four varṇas. If applied to contemporary societies, this text is objectionable and declares Brahmins to be superior to other varṇas. For instance, in verse 1.91
एकमेव तु शूद्रस्य प्रभुः कर्म समादिशत् । एतेषामेव वर्णानां शुश्रूषामनसूयया ॥ ९१ ॥
For the Śūdra the Lord ordained only one function: the ungrudging service of the (other) caste
In verse 10.3, Manu says that the Brahmin varna is the ‘lord’ of the castes:
वैशेष्यात् प्रकृतिश्रैष्ठ्यान्नियमस्य च धारणात् ।
संस्कारस्य विशेषाच्च वर्णानां ब्राह्मणः प्रभुः ॥ ३ ॥
The Brāhmaṇa is the lord of the castes, on account of his distinctive qualities, of the superiority of his origin, of his observance of restrictive rules, of the peculiar character of his sanctification
Historians like K.S Lal, have shown that the rules of the Dharmasastras were not universally accepted. When Hsuan Tsang traveled to India (629-645 A.D), he described the Vaishya-born Emperor Harshavardhana of Eanauj, the Shudra-born King of Matipur. More recently, in the 18th century, a line of Brahmin-born warriors (the Peshwas) ruled more than half the territory of present-day India.
The Manusmriti has gained disproportionate political influence in the last 200 years. Before colonial rule, Sharia (Islamic law) for Muslims in South Asia had been codified as Fatawa-e-Alamgiri by the Islamic Mongol rulers, but laws for non-Muslims were not codified in the thousand years of Islamic rule. The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri continues to be taught in madrassas today in India and Pakistan. Before Islamic rule, Manusmriti was one of many competing Dharmasastras and was not commonly used for centuries. The British colonial powers arbitrarily decided to apply the Manusmriti to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Sikhs.
Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im states the significance and role of Manusmriti in governing India during the colonial era in his book Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Sharia.
The [British] colonial administration began the codification of Hindu and Muslim laws in 1772 and continued through the next century, with emphasis on certain texts as the authentic "sources" of the law and custom of Hindus and Muslims, which in fact devalued and retarded those dynamic social systems. The codification of complex and interdependent traditional systems froze certain aspects of the status of women, for instance, outside the context of constantly evolving social and economic relations, which in effect limited or restricted women's rights. The selectivity of the process, whereby colonial authorities sought the assistance of Hindu and Muslim religious elites in understanding the law, resulted in the Brahminization and Islamization of customary laws [in British India]. For example, the British orientalist scholar William Jones translated the key texts Al Sirjjiyah in 1792 as the Mohammedan Law of Inheritance, and Manusmriti in 1794 as the Institutes of Hindu Law or the Ordinances of Manu. In short, British colonial administrators reduced centuries of vigorous development of total ethical, religious and social systems to fit their own preconceived European notions of what Muslim and Hindu "law" should be.
Mahatma Gandhi, in An Adi-Dravida’s Difficulties, says this about Manusmriti:
I hold Manusmriti as part of Shastras. But that does not mean that I swear by every verse that is printed in the book described as Manusmriti. There are so many contradictions in the printed volume that, if you accept one part, you are bound to reject those parts that are wholly inconsistent with it. ... Nobody is in possession of the original text.
Due to the recent weaponization of the Manusmriti to spread Hinduphobia and the inherent contradiction between the Manusmriti and original Hindu (Vedic) teachings, the Manusmriti has lost public support. Hindu organizations have publicly destroyed copies in a symbolic rejection of its content.
Varṇas in the Buddhist and Jain period (600 BCE - 700 CE)
Over this period of a thousand years, the original Vedic concept of an achievement-based classification of Varṇas was slowly mixed in with a birth-based categorization of people through the Dharmashastras. As a result, various competing narratives arose through debate and discussion – such as Jainism and Buddhism within that society. While Buddhism is closer to the original Vedic Hinduism and rejected the Dharmasastras, Jainism embraced a birth-based categorization.
This was the golden age of Buddhism.
Let’s trace some of this evolution in the Buddhist and Jain perspectives on Varnas.
In the Sonadanda Sutra (#4) in the Digha Nikaya (5th Century AD), the Buddha visited Campa, a village of the Brahmin Vedic Scholar Sonadanda. Sonandanda, along with his Brahmin followers visited the Buddha (instead of the other way around). Sonandanda told his followers that “This Blessed Lord is an Arhant, a fully-enlightened Buddha, perfected in knowledge and conduct…”, and “(unlike) some ascetics and Brahmins, Gotama’s fame is based on his achievement of unsurpassed wisdom and conduct”.
The following dialogue (slightly abridged) occurs between Sonananda and the Buddha, refuting birth-based privileges.
Buddha
By how many qualities do Brahmins recognize a Brahmin? How would one declare truthfully and without falling into falsehood: “I am a Brahmin?”
Sonadanda
Reverend Gotama, there are five such qualities…A Brahmin is well-born, of pure descent to the seventh generation…he is well versed in the mantras…he is pleasing to look at…he is virtuous…he is wise. These are the five qualities of a true Brahmin
Buddha
But if one of these qualities were omitted, could not one be recognized as a true Brahmin, being possessed of four of these qualities?
Sonadanda
We could leave out appearance, for what does that matter?
Buddha
But could not one of these four qualities be omitted, leaving three?
Sonadanda
It is possible, Reverend Gotama. We could leave out the mantras, for what do they matter?
Buddha
But could not one of these three qualities be omitted…?
Sonadanda
It is possible, Reverend Gotama. We could leave out birth, for what does that matter? If a Brahmin is virtuous, of increasing virtue…and if he is learned and wise – then he can be recognized as a true Brahmin.
It is instructive to note that the Vedic scholar confirms the only necessary quality of a Brahmin – being virtuous and learned. He eliminates birth/lineage, looks, status, and knowledge of rituals. His disciples nearby exhort him “Sonadanda don’t say it! Sonadanda is decrying appearance, the mantras, and birth, he is actually adopting the ascetic Gotama’s own words!”. This demonstrates the conflict at that time in society between the Vedic teachings on one hand and the orthodoxy of the Dharmasastras.
What did the Jain religious and social leaders think? We can get some idea in part-1 chapter-16 of the Adi Purana (9th century AD), Jain monk Jinasena states that “there is only one Jāti called Manusyajāti (the human species), but divisions arise based on their different professions.” Jinasena explains how Jain society was also classified into the four Varṇas and recommends marriage within the varna. In the same chapter, he also mentions that Rishabhadeva, the first Jain Tirthankar, empowered the King to punish those who violated the rules. It appears from this text that the Jains were strong supporters of rigid restrictions on intermarriage between Varṇas, also deviating from the original interpretation of Varṇas.
Jāti in Ancient India (1000 BC - 600 AD)
Jāti is literally existence fixed by birth. The term is derived from the Sanskrit jāta, “born” or “brought into existence.” In the Vedas, Jāti (species/genus) describes any group of things that have generic characteristics in common. Jāti as a social classification does not occur in the Vedas, but it’s used to classify medicinal plants does occur in the Ayurveda. The Bhaviṣya-purāṇa (2000 BC – 1000 BC) uses the word Jāti to denote ‘species’.
In the vast subcontinent with a population of 1.4 billion people, there is boundless diversity of languages, clothes, script, and cultures. There are thousands of Jātis – professional guilds and regional/linguistic communities that tend to be endogamous.
It should be self-evident that Jati and Varna are entirely different concepts. While Varṇa comes from aptitude and achievement, Jāti is a birthright. While Varṇa is purely non-causal (voluntary), Jāti is purely causal (forced). Varṇa is determined by what one does with free will. Jāti is determined at birth. While varṇa emphasizes duties and expectations, Jāti is concerned with rights and privileges.
Jati does not translate to ‘Race’ and is a much older concept. Race theories were born in Europe from ideas of Aryan purity, while Jati was born out of linguistic, regional, and professional affinities in the subcontinent. While a group of people of the same race is defined by external characteristics (such as the color of the skin), people of a Jati are defined by a profession, language, or place of origin. Olivelle, in his work on “Caste and Purity: A Study in the Language of the Dharma Literature,” says that:
... the ideology of Varṇa is not based on purity. If it were we should expect to find at least some comment on the relative purity and impurity of the different vamas. What is even more important is that the ideology of purity and impurity that emerges from the Dharma literature is concerned with the individual and not with groups, with purification and not with purity, and lends little support to a theory which makes relative purity the foundation of social stratification.
Hindu Caste System
Social Evolution Interrupted
The Age of Mortal Struggle
The evolution of Indian society through debate and spiritual growth was interrupted for a thousand years, beginning with the first Islamic invasion by the Arab Mahommed Bin Qasim in 711 AD. This date can be considered the end of the Golden age of Buddhism in the subcontinent. During the following eight centuries of conflict, there was little social and spiritual progress. Buddhism was wiped out from present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and most of India. K.S Lal estimates that the subcontinental population decreased from 200 million to 120 million between 1000 AD (conquest of Afghanistan) and 1525 (the end of Delhi Sultanate). The great universities of Sharda Peeth, Vikramashila, Somapura, Odantapuri, Jagaddala, Visaladeva, and Nalanda were destroyed by Mohammed-bin-Qasim, Mahmud Ghazni, Qutbuddin Aibak, Balban, and other sundries. No new universities were constructed in the subcontinent during Islamic rule.
It is true that when Hsuan Tsang came, not only the Punjab but what is now Afghanistan was part of India and further, the people of the Punjab and Afghanistan were either Vedic or Buddhist by religion. But what has happened since Hsuan Tsang left India? The most important thing that has happened is the invasion of India by the Muslim hordes from the north-west.
The slaughter of the Hindus (Buddhists and Jains included) caused a serious setback to the indigenous culture. When Muhammad Bakhtyar Khilji took Nuddea (Nalanda in Bihar), the Tabaquat-i-Nasiri informs us that:
..great plunder fell into the hands of the victors. Most of the inhabitants were Brahmins with shaven heads. They were put to death. A large number of books were found. . . .but none could explain their contents as all the men had been killed, the whole fort and city being a place of study
Recap and Recharge
After the Golden period of Sanatan Dharma, the Golden period of Buddhism emerged. In addition to Buddhism, alternative philosophies emerged during this latter time, such as Jainism, and the Dharmashastras of Gotama and Manu. The adherents of Sanatan Dharma and the Buddhists were philosophically aligned with the original egalitarian vision of the Upanishads, while the followers of the Manusmriti (and other Dharmashastras) developed an alternate theology that encouraged social separation between the Varṇas. The egalitarians continued to triumph until the Islamic conquests wiped out most Indic universities and a large percentage of the population. Islamic rule and the mortal struggle for survival interrupted the process of debate and reform for a thousand years.
The Islamic conquest of India is probably the bloodiest story in history. It is a discouraging tale, for its evident moral is that civilization is a precious good, whose delicate complex of order and freedom, culture and peace, can at any moment be overthrown by barbarians invading from without or multiplying within.
The Caste System – Part II
The story of the Hindu Caste System in India has less to do with its Hinduness and more to do with social evolution, power, racism,
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